Stoicism.

A lot has changed in 2000 years – generations of people have lived and died; empires have risen and fallen; science and technology have continued their steady advance. But, through it all, humans have asked the same question: What does it take to live a good life?

Throughout the millennia, millions of people have turned to Stoicism for the answer. This ancient philosophy has its roots in the Hellenistic era but has been reworked and refined by countless philosophers ever since.

This content presents a concise look at the Stoic aphorisms of Epictetus, a Greek thinker active around 100 AD. Drawing on surviving fragments of his lectures, this manual for life argues that virtue comes from self-discipline and calm detachment in the face of life’s difficulties.

Here we’ll learn

• what Roman soldiers read on the battlefield;

• how to train for the Olympics; and

• why breaking a bowl is no big deal.

Epictetus rose from humble roots to become a leading Stoic philosopher.

Let’s travel back to 55 AD, back when the Roman Empire dominated the entire Mediterranean. In the small city of Hierapolis, in what’s now central Turkey, a boy was born into slavery. His name was Epictetus.

From a young age, Epictetus showed an unusually sharp mind. In fact, his intellect was so promising that he was sent to Rome to study under the renowned philosopher Gaius Musonius Rufus. There, after years of hard work, he began teaching pupils of his own. These lectures were such a hit that in 94 AD the Roman emperor Domitian exiled him to northern Greece in order to curb his growing influence.

Epictetus continued to gain a following. Today, he’s remembered as a foundational figure in classical philosophy.

Epictetus followed a philosophy known as Stoicism. He and his fellow Stoics believed that philosophy shouldn’t be about airy and abstract debates, but should help people navigate the vagaries of everyday life. Through his teachings, Epictetus aimed to provide practical guidance for living a life filled with happiness, tranquility, and a deep sense of personal satisfaction.

Like many philosophers of his time, Epictetus avoided writing. Rather than create long, dense texts, he delivered his thoughts by engaging the public directly through lectures and debates. Luckily, a devoted pupil and historian named Flavius Arrian transcribed many of his teachings into two volumes known as the Discourses. These were later summarized into the Enchiridion, or the manual. 

In accordance with Epictetus’s philosophy, these works were written to be entertaining and accessible to everyday people. Enchiridion was even formatted like a military manual – which were popular texts of the time – and distilled the essence of Stoic thinking down to a series of short observations and adages.

While only portions of these texts survive, they were wildly popular throughout the Roman Empire and soldiers were known to carry copies of Enchiridion into battle. Epictetus even found a follower in the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. Aurelius carefully studied Epictetus’s teachings and used his Stoic philosophy as the basis for his own work, Meditations.

So, what exactly was Epictetus teaching? 

We can’t control the world, but we can control ourselves.

Take a moment to look back at the past 24 hours – did you have a good day or did you have a bad day? To answer that question, it really depends on how you relate to yourself and the world around you.

Let’s say you had a bad day, a very bad one. You woke up too late, had a hectic and rainy commute, and then had to handle an endless stream of minor annoyances and clueless colleagues. Maybe, after work, things got worse. Perhaps your bike was stolen and your partner left you for someone new.

Of course, a day like this would be a drag. But, to a Stoic, all these misfortunes would simply be external events. With proper discipline, they should have no bearing on your internal state of mind.

For Epictetus, stoicism requires making a clear distinction between the inner and the outer world. The outer world is all the external circumstances that lie beyond our control. This includes fundamental things like where and when we’re born, but also the small things like the actions of others and the little twists of fate we encounter every day. The inner world, on the other hand, is ourselves – our thoughts, feelings, and reactions.

For Stoics, happiness comes when we stop trying to control the outer world and focus on the internal instead. Our impulse to control the world comes in two forms – we desire what we think is good and avoid what we consider bad. But, often, these things are out of our hands. We may seek status or wealth while steering clear of pain and adversity, yet they arrive whether we want them to or not.

To avoid despair, Stoicism encourages us to accept the world as it actually is and adjust our emotions accordingly. For instance, death is inevitable. Your perception of death is up to you. If you view death as terrifying, you will live your life with endless angst. But if you welcome death as a neutral fact of life, you will be able to experience the world free of existential dread.

Start small: try holding a fragile object that you cherish. Now, consider how you’d feel if it shattered. You could let this minor tragedy tear you up inside, or you could see it as a minor setback and be thankful you had the object for as long as you did. The choice is yours.

Always act in the world with a sense of purpose and duty.

A firefighter rushes in to rescue a family from a burning building; a doctor performs a complex and life-saving surgery; a parent teaches her child the difference between right and wrong. Sometimes, the world presents us with duties that are obviously of the utmost importance.

But, more often than not, the day-to-day can feel mundane, or even frivolous. After all, life isn’t all exciting actions and honorable sacrifices – most of the time it’s spent making meals, doing chores, and meeting friends and family.

But, these daily tasks are an integral part of being alive. For Epictetus, learning to acknowledge and appreciate them is essential to living a good life.

In order to live a satisfying and fulfilling life, you must find a sense of purpose. Some people seek this meaning in higher callings, like joining the priesthood, or grandiose acts, like going to war. But, such paths aren’t always gratifying; they can feel forced and only provide external validation in the form of social status or other rewards.

A better approach is to live in harmony with the world as it presents itself. Rather than seek overtly sensational duties, simply approach life as if each task and moment is important in itself. Don’t merely make breakfast, make a delicious and healthy breakfast to the best of your culinary abilities. Don’t merely chat with your friends, approach each conversation with compassion, consideration, and care.

As you go through life, make a special effort to notice all the opportunities and resources that are available to you. Try to take advantage of the innumerable assets which life provides. If you have strong and sturdy legs, use them to walk and enjoy exercise. If you have access to books, read them with an open and curious mind. Got a talent for music? Play a tune for the pleasure of yourself and others.

But, remember, it’s not a competition – the only standard you’re trying to meet is your own. If you’re always looking to others for approval, you’ll always feel unfulfilled. To live a good life, you must be the source of your own satisfaction. Find joy and contentment in everything you do, even if you’re the only one that will ever notice.

Cultivate inner tranquility by living free of outside influence.

Diogenes lived a simple life. This Greek philosopher didn’t concern himself with material things or social status. In fact, he very pointedly avoided them altogether.

For clothes, he wore plain and rustic rags. For a home, he chose a barrel in the town square. And for meals, he merely ate whatever was handed to him. Yet, despite these meager conditions, Diogenes was happy. 

Does this mean that all good Stoics should forsake every creature comfort and live a life of poverty? Not necessarily. Diogenes lived a principled lifestyle that suited his unique person – he didn’t want more than he needed and he didn’t seek more than he wanted. His happiness came from within.

There’s a common misconception that freedom is the ability to have and to do anything you want, whenever you want. But, this version of freedom relies on constant consumption and a lifestyle with no responsibilities. This ideal is unrealistic and seeking it will leave you nothing but disappointment. True freedom comes from living in accordance with the world around you.

The best way to achieve this freedom is to view life as a grand banquet. At a banquet table, you sit and chat with the people who happen to be nearby. As serving plates are passed around, you may snack on what comes your way – but you pass the dishes along when the time comes. In this way, you enjoy whatever food and conversation the circumstances allow without desiring any more or less.

Of course, just as with banquets, in life, other people are always present. Here again, you mustn’t let their actions and opinions dictate your internal state. There’s always a temptation to blame others for your circumstances or, even worse, let the approval of others dictate your behaviors. But, your feelings and actions are yours alone – own them and find a way to steer them toward ends that satisfy your desires.

The goal is to have your moods unmoved by chance and your actions free from the influence of peer pressure. This serene aloofness is only possible through discipline, will, and self-mastery. It can’t be achieved overnight. But, if you approach the learning process with steady patience, you’ll slowly develop the necessary character.

Decide on your goals and pursue them with dogged determination.

Imagine you want to compete in the Olympic Games. What’s more, you want to do more than just compete – you want to win. It’s an admirable goal. But, before you can take home the Gold, consider the steps you must take to earn it.

First, you must take on a rigorous fitness regime. You must start each morning with an elaborate stretching routine and fill each afternoon with hours of calisthenics and weight lifting. Next, you must eat a healthy diet and give up wine. Finally, you must remain strictly focused on your goal – until you win, nothing else can matter.

Given this assessment, do you still want to compete? Very well. Do your best – your success is completely up to you.

For Stoics, one of the most important questions is, Who do you want to be? Many people don’t have a solid answer, so they float through life without a clear direction or objective. But having this kind of unmoored existence leaves you vulnerable to outside influence. To avoid this trap, you must clearly define your ideals – decide who you want to be and what you want to accomplish.

Still, having a goal is just the first step. You must also create a plan to achieve your dreams and commit yourself to the endeavor. Here, half measures aren’t good enough. If you pursue your passions without commitment, you will always fall short. If you want to be a soldier, athlete, or musician, but fail to dedicate your energy to the task, you’ll merely be like a child pretending.

To help you, Epictetus offers a few concrete pieces of advice. First, practice restraint. Avoid immediate gratification in favor of patience and moderation. Second, steer clear of idle chatter – speak sparingly and always with purpose. Third, shun popular entertainment – it only wastes time and distracts from your goal. And last, reject casual sex – your body is valuable and should only be shared within a committed relationship.

The best way to stick to this austere lifestyle is to carefully craft a social circle that supports your goals. Select friends with similar principles and ambitions so you can encourage each other through tough times. Choose a role model who embodies your ideals and whose path is an example you can follow as you make your way forward.

It is your duty to adequately perform your given role in society.

Who are you? It seems like a straightforward question – but it’s not.

Think about it. You’re not just your name or even your own personal subjectivity. The truth is, you’re actually defined by your place in an intricate and ordered network of relationships. You’re a son or daughter to your father; a brother or sister to your sibling; a citizen to your country; and a countryman to your fellow citizen.

And like all external things, these relationships exist whether you like them or not. To live a virtuous life, you must learn to endure their obligations and to fulfill the roles they demand of you.

The world we live in is structured by an endless chain of relationships. This divine order provides a blueprint for how to interact with other people – and that includes everyone from close family members to distant relatives to complete strangers. For instance, a child should treat his parents with respect and neighbors should regard each other with courtesy.

For Epictetus, these roles stay the same regardless of any personal prejudices or inclinations. If a father is neglectful or abhorrent, his children should still treat him with the dignity demanded by his role. Think of a relationship as a vase with two handles – if one breaks, the other still functions. So, if a relative fails on a personal level, that handle is broken. Even so, you may still grasp the relationship and lift it from the handle of familial ties.

In the same way, you have a duty to see the people around you as full and complex individuals. If someone you know is given to drinking ample wine, don’t swiftly dismiss them as a drunk. See them in more accurate terms – acknowledge that they drink a lot of wine, but then note their other qualities. After all, we’re all multifaceted individuals, and you’d like to be afforded the same courtesy.

Because these relationships underpin our very existence, it’s important to avoid overly individual thinking. If you accomplish a great deed, don’t take full credit for your triumph; acknowledge those who helped you along the way. If life gives you great fortune, recognize that it didn’t come thanks to your own merits or for your private enjoyment – it’s your duty to share the rewards.

To find happiness, live each day in accordance with your ideals.

Virtue can sound like an old-fashioned or stuffy term. The word itself conjures a whole range of images: from a pious nun to an eco-conscious consumer buying organic produce and driving the most fuel-efficient car.

Yet, for Epictetus, being virtuous meant something more than following strict religious doctrine or sticking to the latest rules about living an ethical life. For the Stoic, virtue is more of a process. It’s something that emerges over time as you align your actions, your beliefs, and your internal moral code.

And as you strive to live a virtuous life, you’ll find that internal tranquility and happiness follow close behind.

According to Epictetus, virtue and happiness go hand-in-hand. You can’t have one without the other. Yet, there’s no established, universal set of laws or rules that dictate exactly what a virtuous life looks like. Each person must discover their own sense of virtue by examining themselves and the world around them. For Stoics like Epictetus, the true purpose of philosophy is to help in this quest for wisdom.

To begin searching for the roots of virtue, approach the world with a sense of humble wonder. All too often, we assume that we understand much more than we actually do. Rather than learn about the world, we continually fall back on our academic education or socially ingrained understandings of common sense. While these sources of knowledge are useful, they sometimes prevent us from seeing reality clearly or being truly introspective.

To live virtuously, you must think deeply about what matters most to you. This means setting aside society’s expectations about success and distancing yourself from the opinions of those around you. At first, you may only have a few strong ideas – maybe you want to help others, think clearly, and always forgive people. Trust these moral intuitions and let them guide your actions.

Each day, live your life in accordance with these principles. Over time, your internal desires will come to align with these ideals and your everyday behaviors will reflect your beliefs.

It might be difficult at first, but it is a process. Just as walking every day makes you a better walker, striving for virtue each day will bring you closer to a virtuous life.

Epictetus was a pivotal figure in founding the Stoic school of philosophy. His teachings, collected by students in the form of short aphorisms, present a practical guide to living a satisfying life. According to Epictetus, happiness comes from within – good Stoics should remain detached from the external world and focus on mastering their own feelings and emotions. Living a virtuous life means sticking to your moral code and fulfilling your duties to society, regardless of the circumstances around you.